Effective and Efficient Reading Instruction for Students Receiving Special Education Services

The importance of students becoming proficient readers cannot be overstated. Reading is fundamental to an individual’s success in school and post-school activities. As Stewart et al. (2005) commented, “Students must learn to read to be successful in our educational system and society as a whole” (p. 115). Furthermore, Kame’enui et al. (2002) noted, “reading opens up the world for children and is the doorway for learning. Unlike any other ability, the ability to read allows access to the collective knowledge, history, and experiences of our shared symbolic humanity” (p. 54).

As you approach teaching students to read, you will be well-served by remaining mindful of the Simple View of Reading (SVR). Reading Rockets (n.d.) discusses this view in detail, and highlights of this discussion are presented next.

The SVR, one view of an incredibly complex process, clearly identifies two broad sets of abilities that students need to be taught as part of their journey to becoming proficient readers. One set is word recognition, while the other set is oral language comprehension. Furthermore, each broad set of abilities comprises specific component skills, some of which are listed next.

Word Recognition

• Phonological and phonemic awareness
• Phonics and decoding skills
• Automatic recognition of common words
• The ability to read common phonetically irregular words

Oral Language Comprehension

• Vocabulary knowledge
• Background knowledge
• Sentence (syntactic) comprehension
• Understanding figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, and idioms

Over time, as students’ reading skills develop, a teacher’s instructional emphasis shifts across the two broad sets of abilities. Word recognition abilities typically are more important during the early stages of learning to read. It is critically important for a student to develop these abilities early on since poor word recognition skills likely limit a student’s reading comprehension skills, even for children with strong oral language skills who cannot read/decode many words.

Later, around 3rd/4th grade, readers who have properly developed their word recognition abilities can focus more of their attention on reading for meaning since they have developed accurate, automatic word recognition skills. Thus, at this time, reading growth depends more on language comprehension than word recognition abilities.

Still, at any particular time, both broad sets of abilities should be taught simultaneously rather than one set at the exclusion of another.

The primary focus of this chapter is four of the five fundamental components of effective beginning reading instruction: phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. Information about these components is presented after (a) first establishing a solid rationale for presenting remedial reading instruction as early as a student’s reading achievement deficit is noted and (b) highlighting the Simple View of Reading (SVR).

In the section below titled “Introduction to Intensive Interventions in Reading,” Dr. Michael Coyne, a professor at the University of Connecticut, puts forth the rationale regarding why it is necessary to present remedial reading instruction as soon as we know that a student is demonstrating an academic achievement deficit in learning to read. Dr. Coyne is an expert in reading intensive intervention, particularly beginning reading instruction. As was the case concerning Dr. Powell and her expertise in mathematics education, I am very fortunate that we can hear directly from Dr. Coyne, as this arrangement is similar to having a nationally renowned guest speaker present to our class.

In the subsequent parts of this chapter, you will be directed to work through content presented on the Reading Rockets website. According to the website, Reading Rockets is a national public media literacy initiative offering information and resources about effective research-based reading instruction for young students. The website got its name from the title of an article authored by reading expert Dr. Louisa Moats: “Teaching Reading IS Rocket Science.”

The content presented by the Reading Rockets website that you must work through involves the following topics critical to teachers who present beginning reading instruction or an equivalent type of remedial reading instruction: phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

References

Kame’enui, E. J., Carnine, D. W., Dixon, R. C., Simmons, D. C., & Coyne, M. D. (2002).
Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners (2nd ed.). Merrill Prentice Hall.

Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Introduction: How children learn to read. Retrieved April 19, 2023 from https://www.readingrockets.org/teaching/reading101-course/introduction-how-children-learn-read

Stewart, R. M., Martella, R. C., Marchand-Martella, N. E., & Benner, G. J. (2005). Three-tier models of reading and behavior. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 2(3), 115-124.

Chapter Primer

The information presented below serves as an introduction to the content presented in this chapter.

• For reasons related to an individual’s performance while in grades K-12 and post-secondary activities, intensive intervention in reading is important and should begin once a student is identified as manifesting a significant achievement gap in learning to read.
• The Simple View of Reading (SVR), which is one view of an incredibly complex process, clearly identifies two broad sets of abilities that students need to be taught as part of their journey to becoming proficient readers. One set is word recognition, while the other is oral language comprehension.
• Phonics instruction addresses issues about teaching students the relationship between the sounds and letters in the English language.
• Fluency is the ability to read a text with accuracy, automaticity, and prosody (expression) sufficient to enable comprehension. You are provided (a) guidelines for fluency instruction and (b) a description of activities for increasing a student’s fluency.
• There is a direct connection between oral vocabulary and reading vocabulary, meaning a student’s oral vocabulary enables her to make sense of the words she sees in print.
• As Reading Rockets notes, comprehension is “the whole point of reading” and involves a student constructing meaning from text.

Introduction to intensive interventions in reading

Watch this module from the National Center on Intensive Intervention titled “Introduction to intensive interventions in reading” to learn why intensive intervention in reading is important and should begin once a student is identified as manifesting a significant achievement gap learning to read.

You are required to watch the entire module which is 26:04 in length (i.e., 26 minutes, 04 seconds). 

Note that you do not have to do any workbook activity, journal activity, outside reading, etc. that is referred to in the module. However, you should listen to the discussions about these activities since much of this information will extend your knowledge about the reasons why providing reading intensive intervention is important.

After working through all of the content in this module, you should be able to

• Describe the existing knowledge base for teaching reading
• Discuss how reading is critical for academic achievement and long-term outcomes, such as school dropout and employment
• Explain the meaning of the “Achievement Gap in Reading”
• Explain the meaning of the “Matthew Effect in Reading”
• Discuss why reading is not a natural occurrence and, therefore, students must be provided explicit instruction to learn how to read
• List the components of successful reading, also known as The Big Ideas of Reading
• Explain the meaning of the phrase, “Reading is NOT a unidimensional construct”
• Discuss how using intensive intervention with a sense of urgency to teach reading can address the Reading Achievement Gap

Models of Reading

Work through all of the content on the Reading Rockets webpage titled Models of Reading. Among other things, you will learn about the Simple View of Reading (SVR) as one way to think about reading development. According to the SVR, good reading comprehension requires two broad sets of abilities: word recognition and oral language comprehension. Moreover, each of these broad sets of abilities include a set of specific component skills.

Among other skills, word recognition encompasses

• Phonological and phonemic awareness
• Phonics and decoding skills
• Automatic recognition of common words
• The ability to read common phonetically irregular words

Among other skills, oral language comprehension encompasses

• Vocabulary knowledge
• Background knowledge
• Sentence (syntactic) comprehension
• Understanding figurative language such as metaphors, similes, and idioms

After working through all of the content in this module, you should be able to

• Explain the Simple View of Reading (SVR)
• List the language comprehension skills under the SVR
• Briefly explain dyslexia and hyperlexia

Phonics

Work through the module Phonics: Introduction which is one component of the Reading Rockets course “Reading 101.” As is stated near the outset of the module, phonics instruction helps children learn the relationships between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language. Therefore, the goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn the alphabetic principle — the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language — and that there is an organized, logical, and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken sounds.

After working through all of the content in this module, you should be able to

• Explain the meanings of the terms alphabetic principle, phoneme, and grapheme
• Complete the following sentence: Phonics instruction is most effective when it begins in ____________________.
• Discuss the different approaches to phonics instruction
• State the purpose of phonics instruction
• Discuss the general structure of phonics lesson planning
• Explain instructional adaptations the can be helpful in supporting students who struggle with working memory, attention, executive function, or processing speed issues

Fluency

Work through the module Fluency: Introduction which is one component of the Reading Rockets course “Reading 101.” As is stated at the outset of the module, fluency is described as the ability to read a text with accuracy, automaticity, and prosody (expression) sufficient to enable comprehension. Furthermore, its importance to a student’s reading development is explained, as fluency is characterized as being a key skill to becoming a strong reader because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.

After working through all of the content in this module, you should be able to

• Discuss why fluency is important
• Explain the difference between fluency and automaticity
• Explain which type of texts – independent, instructional, or frustration level – will usually be the most appropriate for fluency practice
• Discuss the guidelines for fluency instruction
• List four activities for increasing fluency

Vocabulary

Work through the module Vocabulary: Introduction which is one component of the Reading Rockets course “Reading 101.” The module makes a distinction between oral vocabulary and reading vocabulary while noting how beginning readers must use the words they hear orally to make sense of the words they see in print. 

After working through all of the content in this module, you should be able to

• Identify the four types of vocabulary
• Discuss the three ways children learn word meanings indirectly
• Summarize the module’s discussion of Direct Vocabulary Learning
• Explain the following word learning strategies: using word parts, using dictionaries and other references aids, and using context clues
• Explain Isabel Beck’s guidance with respect to choosing specific vocabulary to teach

Comprehension

Work through the module Comprehension: Introduction which is one component of the Reading Rockets course, “Reading 101.” At its outset, this module remarks that comprehension is the whole point of reading. The module notes that skilled readers do more than decode the words on the page; they understand and interpret what they read in order to construct meaning from text. 

After working through all of the content in this module, you should be able to

• State the abilities and behaviors that most skilled readers seem to have in common
• Explain these comprehension strategies that researchers have consistently observed in skilled readers: draw on prior knowledge, draw inferences, self-monitor, form mental images, and summarize & retell
• Discuss the language comprehension component of Scarborough’s Rope model

No Cost Resources Pertaining to This Topic

Each item below is a no cost resource that presents information concerning some aspect of this chapter’s focus, which is the presentation of effective and efficient reading instruction to students with disabilities. To access a resource, use the link provided.

Introduction to intensive interventions in reading This online module from the National Center on Intensive Intervention explains why intensive intervention in reading is important.

RTI (Part 3): Reading Instruction This is an online module made available by The IRIS Center. The module addresses (a) the importance of research-validated instruction, (b) the five components of effective reading instruction, and (c) how to implement high-quality instruction when using the response-to-intervention approach.

Reading 101 Reading 101 is a self-paced professional development course for K-3 teachers, hosted by the Reading Rockets website. The course provides teachers with an in-depth knowledge of reading and writing so they are prepared to guide their students into becoming skilled and enthusiastic readers and writers. Reading 101 was produced in collaboration with the Center for Effective Reading Instruction and The International Dyslexia Association. Reading 101 has also received generous support from the National Education Association. The various components of the course that address reading instruction are identified, below, as bulleted items.

• How Children Learn to Read | Reading Rockets On this webpage, you can access a short multimedia presentation about the science of reading and its relationship to teaching reading.
• Print Awareness: An Introduction This is one of the online modules that comprise the course “Reading 101.” Near the outset, the module states that print awareness is understanding that print is organized in a particular way — for example, knowing that print is read from left to right and top to bottom. It is knowing that words consist of letters and that spaces appear between words. Print awareness is a child’s earliest introduction to literacy. Children with print awareness understand that print has different functions depending on the context in which it appears — for example, menus list food choices, a book tells a story, and a sign can announce a favorite restaurant or warn of danger.
• Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction This is one of the online modules that comprise the course “Reading 101.” Phonological awareness refers to a global awareness of, and ability to manipulate, the sound structures of speech (see Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: In Depth). As the module states, phonological awareness is, in part, the ability to recognize and manipulate the spoken parts of sentences and words. Examples include being able to identify words that rhyme, recognizing alliteration, segmenting a sentence into words, identifying the syllables in a word, and blending and segmenting onset-rimes. The most sophisticated phonological awareness skill — which is also the last to develop — is called phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. This includes blending sounds into words, segmenting words into sounds, and deleting and playing with the sounds in spoken words. Altogether, phonological awareness (PA) involves a continuum of skills that develop over time and are crucial for reading and spelling success, because they are central to learning to decode and spell printed words. Phonological awareness is especially important at the earliest stages of reading development — in pre-school, kindergarten, and first grade for typical readers.
• Phonics  This is one of the online modules that comprise the course “Reading 101.” As is stated near the outset of the module, phonics instruction helps children learn the relationships between the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language. Therefore, the goal of phonics instruction is to help children learn the alphabetic principle — the idea that letters represent the sounds of spoken language — and that there is an organized, logical, and predictable relationship between written letters and spoken sounds.
• Fluency This is one of the online modules that comprise the course “Reading 101.” At the outset of the module, fluency is described as the ability to read a text with accuracy, automaticity, and prosody (expression) sufficient to enable comprehension. Furthermore, its importance to a student’s reading development is explained as fluency is characterized as being a key skill to becoming a strong reader because it provides a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.
• Vocabulary This is one of the online modules that comprise the course “Reading 101.” Near the outset of this module, the author remarks that vocabulary plays an important part in learning to read, meaning beginning readers must use the words they hear orally to make sense of the words they see in print. The module also makes a distinction between oral vocabulary and reading vocabulary. Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or comprehend in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we comprehend or use in print.
• Comprehension This is one of the online modules that comprise the course “Reading 101.” With respect to reading comprehension, at its outset this module remarks that comprehension is the whole point of reading. The module notes that skilled readers do more than decode the words on the page; they understand and interpret what they read. They construct meaning from text. By reading actively and purposefully, skilled readers can learn from and enjoy what they read.

Progress Monitoring: Reading This online module, according to its creator, The IRIS Center, introduces users to progress monitoring in reading, a type of formative assessment in which student learning is evaluated to provide useful feedback about performance to both learners and teachers (Estimated completion time: 2 hours).