The changing surface of the Earth

The surface of the Earth experiences constant change due to geologic processes such as tectonic plate movement, weathering, erosion and deposition. Common landforms being modified by these processes include mountains, hills, valleys, plains, plateaus, and coastlines. For instance, craggy mountains can be weathered to gentle peaks. River deltas can form when eroded sediment from upstream is deposited at the mouth of the river. New land can be created when volcanoes erupt.

Watch this video about how weathering and erosion shape the land.

“Weathering and Erosion” by Khan Academy

Watch the video below of a new island emerge in the Pacific Ocean.

“The Birth of a New Island” by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center/LK Ward

Rocks and minerals

Did you ever collect rocks as a child? Make a virtual rock collection and learn about the three main types of rocks in this interactive. The three main rock types are:

• Igneous: Formed from cooling molten rock from beneath the Earth’s surface (i.e., magma) or volcanic lava flows.
• Sedimentary: Formed from pieces of other rocks (e.g, sand, pebbles) and even shells, corals, bones, and plants that build up and are cemented together
• Metamorphic: Formed from other rocks that were subjected to intense heat and pressure under the Earth’s surface

Visit the virtual exhibit of the American Museum of Natural History to see examples of each rock type. Rocks are essentially recycled by the natural processes of weathering, erosion, heat and pressure, compaction and cementation during the rock cycle.

What is a rock though? Rocks are naturally occurring solid substances that are formed from two or more minerals. So what is a mineral? Minerals are inorganic and do not come from living things. Minerals are formed from elements or compounds that naturally occur in a crystalline form in the Earth.  For example, the mineral quartz is formed from the compound silicon dioxide. See other examples of common minerals here.

Minerals can be classified by their physical and chemical properties. Watch the video below about ways to examine the luster, hardness, color, streak and breakage of minerals.

“Mineral Identification” by Geologia da Terra

soil

Soil is a mixture of particles of minerals from weathered rocks and pieces of living and dead organisms (called organic matter or humus). Rich loamy topsoil (topsoil is layer A in the diagram below) has equal amounts of sand, clay and silt along with a good amount of organic matter. This type of topsoil can support a wide variety of plants because it allows air and water to reach the roots and contains many necessary nutrients.

Watch the video below to learn how soil is formed from the weathering of rock over thousands of years.

“How Soil Formation is Controlled by the Weathering of Rock” by WorldBookOfficial

earth’s systems

Earth is a complex system composed of four sub-systems called spheres. The four major spheres include the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.  The geosphere is made of all of the rock (both solid and molten) that forms the Earth. The biosphere includes all of the living things found on land and water.  The hydrosphere consists of all of the Earth’s waters, including fresh and salt, above and below ground, and liquid and frozen. (The frozen water found in ice sheets and glaciers is subdivided into the cryosphere.) Last, the atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth. Read more about the spheres here.

Earth’s four systems interact constantly with each other.  Energy and matter move between these spheres (e.g., Carbon cycle).  A natural or manmade event occurring in one sphere can impact the other spheres.  For instance, a volcanic eruption (geosphere) can release gases like carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere and destroy many living things near the eruption (biosphere). Watch the video describing some of the Earth system interactions and how they are studied.

“What are the Earth’s Systems?” by University of Florida’s Thompson Earth Systems Institute

water cycle, weather, and climate

How many steps are in the water cycle? You might be surprised to find out that the water cycle involves more than just evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection mentioned in songs like this one. Check out the interactive water cycle diagram. What other processes take place as a part of the water cycle?

“The Water Cycle” by Hopscotch

The terms weather and climate are sometimes used interchangeably, which is not accurate.  Both have to do with the conditions of the atmosphere. However, weather is related to short term atmospheric conditions, and climate is related to patterns in these conditions over long periods of time (i.e., 30 years or more). Weather instruments like these are used to measure the atmospheric conditions.

When we describe the weather, we talk about specific atmospheric conditions like temperature, humidity, cloud cover, wind and precipitation at a particular time (e.g., minute, hour, day). As we certainly know in Florida, the weather can change from one moment to the next.

Climate consists of the average conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation) for a particular region. When we describe the climate, we often refer to the seasonal patterns. For instance, much of Florida is in the humid subtropical zone which means that we experience hot summers and cool winters. Rainfall varies throughout the year and we do not have a consistent dry or wet season (e.g., monsoon). Read more about the climate zones of the US here.

Watch the video to learn more about the difference between weather and climate.

“What’s the Difference Between Weather and Climate?” by NASA Climate Change

conservation of natural resources

Natural resources include material resources (e.g., plants, minerals) as well as energy resources used to generate electricity, light, or heat. Both material and energy resource can be renewable or non-renewable, meaning that they can be regularly replenished by nature or not (in a reasonable amount of time for people to use). Even though a resource may be renewable, there may be negative environmental impacts associated with its use. People and communities therefore have to carefully weigh the pros and cons when selecting which material and energy resources to use. The table below identifies examples of various renewable and non-renewable resources.

Table 1. Renewable and non-renewable resources

*Topsoil takes thousands of years to form.

The conservation movement began around 1900 when people started to recognize the impacts of unrestrained use of natural resources (Library of Congress, n.d.). Conservation is the careful use of natural resources so that future generations will have access to them. Conservation can include limiting or reducing consumption of resources, finding alternatives (e.g., using renewable energy resources), recovering and reusing materials (e.g., composting, shopping at second stores), and recycling materials. (Note: Recycling plastic has not been as effective as hoped and many communities like Pensacola are discontinuing their recycling programs.) Conservation also includes reducing and mitigating pollution in our environment which can harm living things and make certain resources like soil and water unsafe for people to use. Watch the video below about the need to conserve soil.

“Why the World is Running Out of Soil” by CNBC

Day and Night, moon phases, tides, and seasons

Use the Earth-Sun-Moon model to explore day and night and the phases of the moon.

We experience day and night as the Earth spins (rotates) on its axis every 24 hours. However, we see the moon gradually change shape as the Moon revolves around the Earth each month (~29.5 days).  We can only see one side of the Moon because it rotates and revolves at exactly the same rate due to tidal locking. Watch the video below demonstrating how the appearance of the moon changes from New Moon to Full Moon and back to New Moon.

“Moon Phase Demonstration” by National Science Teaching Association

Some students believe that the Earth is closer to the Sun in the summer and that is why it is hotter (in the Northern hemisphere). This is not accurate. The Earth is actually slightly closer to the Sun in winter.

Watch the videos below explaining how the tilt of the Earth as it revolves around the Sun causes the seasons . During summer, the Earth’s surface receives more concentrated sunlight. During winter,  the Earth’s surface receives less concentrated sunlight.

“Why Do We Have Different Seasons?” by the California Academy of Sciences

“What Causes the Season?” by funsciencedemos

Tides are caused by the pull of the Moon’s gravity on Earth’s oceans. The water bulges on the closest and farthest sides of the Earth from the Moon during high tides. Watch the video below explaining why many coasts have two high tides and two low tides each day.  However, the coasts around the Gulf of Mexico generally only have one high and one low tide each day (National Ocean Service, n.d.).

“What Causes Tides?” by NOAA SciJinks

solar system

Our Solar System is comprised of various objects, such as the Sun, the planets, their moons, asteroids, and comets. Each object in our solar system has its own unique characteristics. Below are descriptions of objects in our solar system.

Table 2: Objects in our solar system

How big are the planets and how far away are they compared to each other? Watch this video to learn about the scale of the Solar System. Then take a tour of the solar system using the NASA EYES simulation.

Solar System Size and Distance by NASA JPL Edu

space exploration

Who won the space race, the Americans or the Soviets? Watch the video below to find out.

“Who Won the Space Race?” by Jeff Steers is licensed under CC BY NC ND 4.0.

The timeline below describes major events in space exploration following the Soviet’s launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957.

• Dawn of the Space Age (1958): Explorer 1 was the first satellite launched by the United States. Its successful launch marked the United States’ entry into the Space Age. It demonstrated their ability to develop and launch satellites into orbit, competing with the Soviet Union during the Cold War era.
• First Man in Space (1961): Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut, embarked on a historic journey aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft on April 12, 1961. This mission allowed him to become the first human in space; the journey consisted of one orbit around the Earth that lasted approximately 108 minutes. During this time Gagarin was able to experience weightlessness and witness the view of our planet from space. This event accelerated the space race, sparked technological advancements and inspired future generations.
• First American in Space (1961): Several weeks after the USSR’s first man in space the United States was able to launch their own successful mission as a part of the Mercury human spaceflight program. On May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard piloted the Freedom 7 spacecraft on a suborbital 15-minute flight where the altitude reached a peak of 116 miles. Unlike Yuri Gagarin, Shepard was able to take control of his spacecraft for short periods of time. This mission boosted American confidence, accelerated the space exploration efforts, and prompted technological advancements. Alan Shepard’s flight laid the foundation for future manned missions and played a crucial role in shaping the course of space exploration.
• First American in Orbit (1962): Less than a year after Yuri Gagarin made the first human orbital flight, John Glenn became the first American astronaut to orbit the Earth, making a significant contribution to the United States’ efforts to catch up with the Soviet Union in the space race. On February 20, 1962, Glenn piloted the Friendship 7 spacecraft. His mission lasted 4 hours and 55 minutes, during which he completed three orbits around the Earth. This achievement instilled national pride, advanced the American space program, and spurred technological advancements. His mission inspired generations of scientists, engineers, and astronauts.
• Apollo 11 Moon Landing (1969): Representing the culmination of the Apollo program, the Apollo 11 mission successfully landed astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on the Moon. This historic achievement demonstrated human capabilities in space, enriching national pride and scientific progress and inspiring future generations.
• Skylab 1 (1973-1979): Skylab 1 was the United State’s first space station; it consisted of a modified rocket which was converted into a habitable space station. It was launched on May 14, 1973 and remained in orbit for six years until it deteriorated and fell into the Indian ocean July 11, 1979. Skylab hosted three separate crews who lived on the station for a total of 168 days in orbit. During their time at Skylab, the astronauts conducted experiments in biomedical and life sciences and solar astronomy. The missions conducted at Skylab were important in understanding how humans endure extended periods of time in space.
• Apollo-Soyuz (1975): The primary objective of the Apollo-Soyuz mission was a docking and crew exchange between an American Apollo spacecraft and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in Earth’s orbit. The two spacecrafts docked in space for two days, during this time the astronauts shook hands, embraced, and exchanged presents, plaques, and flags from their respective nations. This mission marked the first joint mission between the United States and the Soviet Union, and the end of the space race. It showcased the power of international collaborations in space exploration which fostered unity among nations in the pursuit of scientific knowledge and exploration beyond Earth’s boundaries.
• Voyager Grand Tour (1977-1989): Launched by NASA in 1977, Voyager 1 embarked on a mission called the “Grand Tour” with its twin Voyager 2 to explore the outer solar system. It conducted close flybys of Jupiter in 1979, Saturn in 1980, Uranus in 1986, and Neptune in 1989, capturing breathtaking images and gathering vital scientific data about the planets and their moons. These discoveries profoundly impacted our understanding of the outer solar system, revolutionizing our knowledge in this field of space exploration.
• First Space Transport System (1981): NASA launched its first space shuttle mission, known as Space Transportation System-1 (STS-1). This mission involved the launch of the Space Shuttle Columbia, carrying astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into orbit. This Space Shuttle was the world’s first reusable spacecraft, designed to carry crew and cargo into orbit and return to Earth. This reusability promised reduced costs and increased access to space, potentially revolutionizing space travel.
• Hubble Space Telescope (1990): The launch of the Hubble Space Telescope revolutionized astronomy by providing unprecedented views of the universe. The images provided by Hubble have expanded our understanding of celestial objects and have continued to influence astronomical research.
• Mars Rovers (1997-Present): NASA’s Mars rovers, Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity, have explored the Martian surface, gathering valuable data about the planet’s geology, climate, and potential for life. These missions have sparked public interest in Mars and laid the groundwork for future human missions.
• International Space Station (1998-Present): The International Space Station (ISS) is a collaborative space project involving the United States, Russia, Europe, Japan, and Canada. For this reason, it serves as a symbol of international cooperation and diplomacy. Its construction and continuous habitation have facilitated research in fields such as biology, physics, and astronomy.
• Commercial Spaceflight (2002-Present): SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk, has revolutionized space exploration with its reusable rockets and spacecraft. The company’s achievements, such as the Falcon 9 rocket and the Crew Dragon spacecraft, have led to a renewed focus on commercial spaceflight and the potential for space tourism.
• Voyager Interstellar Mission (2012-Present): After completing its primary mission Voyager 1 entered interstellar space, becoming the first human-made object to venture beyond our solar system. This ongoing mission involves studying the interstellar medium and providing insights into the boundary between the Sun’s influence and interstellar space. Voyager 1 interstellar journey continues to provide valuable data on the environment beyond our solar system.
• New Horizons Pluto Flyby (2015): NASA’s New Horizons spacecraft conducted a flyby of Pluto, providing the first close-up images and scientific data of the dwarf planet. This mission reshaped our understanding of Pluto and the outer solar system.
• Veggie Plant Growth System Experiment (2015): NASA achieved a significant milestone in space exploration by successfully growing and eating lettuce aboard the International Space Station (ISS) as part of the Veggie Plant Growth System experiment. This event marked the first time food was grown and consumed in space; it symbolized a significant step towards achieving sustainable and self-sufficient human presence in space. It also demonstrated the feasibility of cultivating fresh food off Earth with implications for future space missions, human well-being, and advancements in agricultural practices on Earth.
• Artemis Program (2020-Present): NASA’s Artemis program aims to return humans to the Moon and establish a sustainable presence there by the 2020s. This initiative paves the way for further scientific exploration, resource utilization, and potential future missions to Mars. The program plans to accomplish three missions, Artemis I, II, and III. The 2022 Artemis I mission involved the launch of the uncrewed Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion spacecraft on a test flight around the Moon. Artemis II is planned to be the first crewed flight of the Artemis program. This flight will loop around the moon but will not land on the surface. The Artemis III mission aims to land the first women and first person of color on the lunar surface. The scientists believe that they can use what they learn on and around the moon to send the first astronauts to Mars. The video below outlines the Artemis program.

“How We Are Going to the Moon 4K” by NASA

References

Conservation in the progressive era (n.d.) Library of Congress. Retrieved August 18, 2023 from https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/conservation-in-progressive-era/

Tides and water levels (n.d.). National Ocean Service. Retrieved August 15, 2023 from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_tides/tides07_cycles.html

FTCE k-6 Earth and space science outcomes

Below are the outcomes related to the Earth and Space Science competency for the FTCE K-6 exam:

1. Identify characteristics of geologic formations (e.g., volcanoes, canyons, mountains) and the mechanisms by which they are changed (e.g., physical and chemical weathering, erosion, deposition).
2. Identify and distinguish among major groups and properties of rocks and minerals and the processes of their formations.
3. Identify and analyze the characteristics of soil, its components and profile, and the process of soil formation.
4. Identify and analyze processes by which energy from the Sun is transferred (e.g., radiation, conduction, convection) through Earth’s systems (e.g., biosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, cryosphere).
5. Identify and analyze the causes and effects of atmospheric processes and conditions (e.g., water cycle, weather, climate).
6. Identify and analyze various conservation methods and their effectiveness in relation to renewable and nonrenewable natural resources.
7. Analyze the Sun-Earth-Moon system in order to explain repeated patterns such as day and night, phases of the Moon, tides, and seasons.
8. Compare and differentiate the composition and various relationships among the objects of our Solar System (e.g., Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, comets).
9. Identify major events in the history of space exploration and their effects on society.