Chapter 7: Instructional Model
- Instruction
- Problem-Based Learning
- Project-Based Learning
- Backward Design Process
Instruction
Now that we’ve laid the foundation for an effective lesson by discussion, planning, and assessment, we can turn to instruction. Instruction involves the actual act of teaching a lesson and is usually what comes to mind when you envision teaching. You likely have experienced both good and poor teaching in your life as a student. Teaching is not telling. To teach well requires careful planning and knowledge of the learners in the room. Various tools, techniques, and strategies help teachers organize their instruction more logically and deliver it appropriately.
Teaching strategies are usually a series of steps that a teacher might have the students follow to encourage interaction or deeper thinking during instruction; strategies usually take from 5 to 15 minutes to enact during a lesson. An example of a strategy is “think-pair-share,” where a student turns to a partner to discuss a question or prompt before sharing with a larger group. Other strategies include using graphic organizers or creating metaphors to help students see content in a new way. You will have entire classes about teaching strategies in different content areas, often called methods courses, as you continue in your journey toward becoming a teacher. For now, we’ll investigate one very powerful, research-based strategy that can be used in all grades and content areas: Think-Pair-Share.
Think-Pair-Share is a particularly effective strategy because it allows students to share ideas with just one other person before being asked to share with the class. Students can have an opportunity to articulate their ideas prior to whole-class discussion. Extended Think-Pair-Share is a strategy used for English Learners. Instead of just an open-ended dialogue, students are prompted to use sentence frames, such as “I think the experiment showed us__________________ because I saw ___________happen.” Or, “That character in the story is very ______________. I know this because he _____________”. In this way, the dialogue is more structured, and English learners practice correct English syntax. This video shows a math teacher using the Think-Pair-Share strategy during a lesson.
When planning instructional activities, always keep them aligned with your standards, objectives, and assessments. While it can be tempting to turn to Teachers Pay Teachers, Pinterest, or TikTok for instructional inspiration, many of these “fun” activities do not result in meaningful learning. Always keep your instructional goals at the forefront of your selection of instructional activities.
Video: Think, Pair, Share
Source: https://youtu.be/tPSfolz_700
One or more interactive elements have been excluded from this text version. You can view them online here:https://mtsu.pressbooks.pub/introtoedshell/?p=562#oembed-1
Direct Instruction
Direct Instruction is an evidence-based teaching method. In general usage, the term direct instruction refers to (1) instructional approaches that are structured, sequenced, and led by teachers and/or (2) the presentation of academic content to students by teachers, such as in a lecture or demonstration. In other words, teachers are “directing” the instructional process, or instruction is being “directed” at students.
While a classroom lecture is perhaps the image most commonly associated with direct instruction, the term encompasses various fundamental teaching techniques and potential instructional scenarios. For example, presenting a video or film to students could be considered a form of direct instruction (even though the teacher is not actively instructing students, the content and presentation of material were determined by the teacher). Generally speaking, direct instruction may be the most common teaching approach in the United States since teacher-designed and teacher-led instructional methods are widely used in American public schools. That said, it’s important to note that teaching techniques such as direct instruction, differentiation, or scaffolding, to name just a few, are rarely mutually exclusive—direct instruction may be integrated with any number of other instructional approaches in a given course or lesson. For example, teachers may use direct instruction to prepare students for an activity in which the students work collaboratively on a group project with guidance and coaching from the teacher as needed (the group activity would not be considered a form of direct instruction).
Key Takeaways
In addition, the basic techniques of direct instruction not only extend beyond lecturing, presenting, or demonstrating, but many are considered to be foundational to effective teaching. For example:
- Establish learning objectives for lessons, activities, and projects, and then make sure that students understand
the goals. - Purposefully organizing and sequencing a series of lessons, projects, and assignments that move students toward stronger understanding and the achievement of specific academic goals.
- Reviewing instructions for an activity or modeling a process—such as a scientific experiment—so that students know what they are expected to do.
- Providing students with clear explanations, descriptions, and illustrations of the knowledge and skills being taught.
- Asking questions to make sure that students have understood what has been taught.
It should be noted that the term direct instruction is used in various proprietary or trademarked instructional models that have been developed and promoted by educators, including—most prominently—Direct Instruction, created by Siegfried Engelmann and Wesley Becker, which is an “explicit, carefully sequenced and scripted model of instruction,” according to the National Institute for Direct Instruction.
Debate
In recent decades, the concept of direct instruction has taken on negative associations among some educators. Because direct instruction is often associated with traditional lecture-style teaching to classrooms full of passive students obediently sitting at desks and taking notes, it may be considered outdated, pedantic, or insufficiently considerate of student learning needs by some educators and reformers.
That said, many of direct instruction’s negative connotations likely result from either a limited definition of the concept or a misunderstanding of its techniques. For example, all teachers, by necessity, use some form of direct instruction in their teaching (i.e., preparing courses and lessons, presenting and demonstrating information, and providing clear explanations and illustrations of concepts are all essential and, to some degree, unavoidable teaching activities). Negative perceptions of the practice tend to arise when teachers rely too heavily upon direct instruction or when they fail to use alternative techniques that may be better suited to the lesson at hand, or that may improve student interest, engagement, and comprehension.
While a sustained forty-five-minute lecture may not be considered an effective teaching strategy by many educators, the alternative strategies they may advocate—such as personalized learning or project-based learning,
to name just two options—will almost certainly require some level of direct instruction by teachers. In other words, teachers rarely use either direct instruction or some other teaching approach—in actual practice, diverse strategies are frequently blended together. For these reasons, negative perceptions of direct instruction likely result more from a widespread over-reliance on the approach and from the tendency to view it as an either/or option rather than from its inherent value to the instructional process. (Direct Instruction, 2013)
The next section of the chapter is adapted from McLeskey, J., Barringer, M-D., Billingsley, B., Brownell, M., Jackson, D., Kennedy, M., Lewis, T., Maheady, L., Rodriguez, J., Scheeler, M. C., Winn, J., & Ziegler, D. (2017, January). High-leverage practices in special education. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children & CEEDAR Center. (Public domain)
Use Explicit Instruction
Teachers make content, skills, and concepts explicit by showing and telling students what to do or think while solving problems, enacting strategies, completing tasks, and classifying concepts. Teachers use explicit instruction when students learn new material and complex concepts and skills. They strategically choose examples and non-examples and language to facilitate student understanding, anticipate common misconceptions, highlight essential content, and remove distracting information. They model and scaffold steps or processes needed to understand content and concepts, apply skills, and complete tasks successfully and independently.
Watch this video on Explicit Instruction: (*start at 1:30 minutes:)
Source: https://youtu.be/ESFVNzihOZ0?si=loC_zQOC_NxPoHoT [Council for Exceptional Children]. (2019, April 22). HLP#16 Use Explicit Instruction. {Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/ESFVNzihOZ0
Video Transcript available at: https://highleveragepractices.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Explicit_Instruction_Script-002.pdf
In summary, explicit instruction is effective for most students, not only those with disabilities. This approach can be used across grade levels and content areas. Although explicit instruction can be provided by any teacher, the unique setting and needs of the students being taught determine
the level of intensity with which the teacher uses this practice. The difference in intensity is not merely the number of students in each class but that instruction should be appropriately intense and matched to the unique needs of students. A trained special educator or similar specialist is responsible for ensuring data that is carefully collected and monitored drives instructional decision-making. This ensures the explicit instruction being delivered is appropriately intense and that the team is ready to make changes as needed.
This next section contains excerpts from the National Center on Intensive Intervention. (2016). Principles for designing intervention in mathematics. Washington, DC: Office of Special Education, U.S. Department of Education, and is in the pubic domain.
Explicit, Systematic Instruction in the Context of Mathematics Instruction
Explicit, systematic instruction in mathematics requires educators to clearly teach the steps involved in solving mathematical problems using a logical progression of skills (Hudson, Miller, & Butler, 2006; Montague & Dietz, 2009). Explicit instruction may take the form of teaching students how to use manipulatives, teaching specific algorithms for solving computational problems, or teaching strategies for solving more advanced mathematical concepts. Systematic instruction considers the scope and mathematical trajectories, such as the types of examples used for developing the foundational skills prior to the introduction/re-teaching of grade-level material (Gersten et al., 2009; Kroesbergen & Van Luit, 2003; Maccini, Mulcahy, & Wilson, 2007). Regardless of the concept or skill being taught, explicit, systematic instruction should include the following components (Archer & Hughes, 2011; Hudson et al., 2006):
1. Advance Organizer: Providing students with an advance organizer allows them to know the specific objective of the lesson and its relevance to everyday life.
2. Assessing Background Knowledge: In assessing background knowledge, instructors determine whether students have mastered the prerequisite skills for successful problem-solving in the new concept area. If the prerequisite skills were recently covered, an assessment of background knowledge should be conducted quickly. If, however, those skills were taught several weeks ago, more time may be needed to refresh students’ memories. Instructors can also determine whether students are able to generalize previously learned concepts to new concepts. For example, if students have previously learned regrouping strategies in addition and subtraction, can they generalize these concepts to regrouping in multiplication and division? In addition, instructors should ask students questions about the new concept to assess their knowledge of the concept.
3. Modeling:
During the modeling phase, instructors “think aloud” as they model the process of working through a computation problem; read, set up, and solve a word problem; use a strategy; or demonstrate a concept. During modeling, instructors should be clear and direct in their presentation; they also should be precise and mindful in using general and mathematical vocabulary and in selecting numbers or examples for use during instruction. During modeling, instructors should involve students in reading the problems and should ask questions to keep students engaged in the lesson.
4. Guided Practice:
During guided practice, instructors engage all students by asking questions to guide learning and understanding as students actively participate in solving problems. During this phase, instructors prompt and scaffold student learning as necessary. Scaffolding is gradually eliminated as students demonstrate accuracy in using the material being taught. Positive and corrective feedback is provided during this phase, and instruction is adjusted to match student needs. Students should reach a high level of mastery (typically 85 percent accuracy or higher) before moving out of the guided practice phase.
5. Independent Practice: After achieving a high level of mastery, students move to the independent practice phase, where they autonomously demonstrate their new knowledge and skills. During independent practice, the instructor closely monitors students and provides immediate feedback as necessary. Countless independent practice activities can be used with students, and the primary focus of the independent practice activity should be related to the content of the modeling and guided practice. If students demonstrate difficulty at this stage, instructors evaluate and adjust their instruction to re-teach concepts as needed.
6.Maintenance: Students with disabilities often have a difficult time maintaining what they have learned when the knowledge is not used on a regular basis. Students are given opportunities to independently practice these skills during the maintenance phase. During this phase, instructors use distributed practice to assess student maintenance at regularly scheduled intervals. Distributed practice focuses on a specific skill, strategy, or concept. The frequency of these practice assessments is determined by the difficulty level of the skill and according to individual student needs. Maintenance may also include cumulative practice.
Instructors often want to know how much time they should spend on each phase. Although there are no specific guidelines concerning how much time should be devoted to each phase, the bulk of the instruction should occur within the guided practice phase (National Center on Intensive Intervention, 2013).
Watch Videos on How to do Direct Instruction – Teach Like This (3:40 minutes)
Source:https://youtu.be/OJJkkUPC_yM
Watch the Video Key Takeaways- I do, We do, You do
Source: https://youtu.be/APyvwPzxZ7I
Goal Mastery Learning
- Ido– Teacher Modeling, Teacher Directed
- We do– Guided Practice with Support and Structure
- You do– Independent Practice to Demonstrate Learning
Watch the video Teaching Matters: Explicit Instruction (4:53 minutes)
Source: https://youtu.be/APyvwPzxZ7I
The Gradual Release of Responsibility Model
Explicit Instruction (aka Gradual Release of Responsibility – GRR)
The Gradual Release of Responsibility instructional model
uses explicit instruction to help students achieve success. Teachers plan lessons using an “I do”, “We do”, You do it together”, and “You do it individually” framework.
During the “I do” phase, the teacher models the lesson using strategies, such as a think-aloud, to show students how to accomplish the learning objective. For example, if a teacher is teaching a lesson on how to identify the adjectives in a sentence, the “I do” phase may look similar to this:
Example:
Teacher: Ok…so my first sentence is “The black puppy jumped over the brown log.” Well, thinking about what an adjective is, I remember that an adjective is used to describe a noun. So, first, I should identify the nouns in the sentence. (pauses to show that they are thinking about which words are the nouns.) Ok…so after thinking about it a bit, I remember that a noun is a person, place, thing, or idea. In my sentence, I think I have two nouns – puppy and log. I know this because “puppy” is an animal, and “log” is a thing. Ok…so if these are my two nouns, can I find any words that describe “puppy” or “log” (Teacher pauses for a few more seconds to simulate thinking time.) Well, in this sentence, I see that the word “black” comes before the word “puppy” and seems to be telling me what that puppy looks like. This must mean that “black” is an adjective because it describes what the puppy looks like. I also notice that the word “brown” comes before the word “log”. Since this seems to describe what the log looks like, it must be an adjective as well. So, the two adjectives in my sentence are “black” and “brown”.
During the “We do” phase, the teacher repeats the instructional modeling of the lesson; however, this time, students are involved in the process. For example:
Example:
Teacher:
Ok…let’s do sentence number 2 together. Read the sentence out loud with me: “The lazy cat lounged on the green couch.” Great job! Now, looking at our new sentence on your whiteboard, write down the first noun you see. (
The teacher pauses to allow students time to write down the noun “cat”.) Ok, everyone, on the count of three, hold up your whiteboards…1…2…3… (The teacher looks over all the whiteboards to make sure that the majority of the students have written the word “cat”.) Great job, everyone! The first noun is “cat”. I’m going to underline that word here on the board with green. Ok…now, above the word cat, I want you to write the word that seems to describe the cat. (The teacher walks around as students write their answers to check student understanding. Once the teacher has checked all student responses, students are asked to share with the class again.) Ok, everyone, on the count of three, let’s turn those whiteboards around…1…2…3. Great job again!
The word that seems to describe the cat is “lazy”. I will draw a red box around that word and then an arrow to the word cat so we know that “lazy” describes “cat”. Ok, is there another noun in our sentence? (
The teacher pauses briefly to hear student responses.)
That’s right, there is another noun. Write the second noun on your whiteboard. (The teacher pauses to let students write down the noun “couch” and then repeats the above process with students, making sure that all students have also identified “green” as the word that describes the color of the couch.)
During the “You do it together” phase, the teacher has students work in pairs or small groups to identify the adjectives in a few more sentences. As the students work, the teacher walks around to check student understanding and to correct any misconceptions. Also, during this time, the teacher may pull a small group of students who need additional instruction in order to be successful.
The final phase, or the “You do it individually” phase, has students complete the exercises by themselves, usually in the form of a formative assessment. Teachers can also use an exit ticket to assess student comprehension of the concept taught individually. The data from this formative assessment can then be used to adjust the planned instruction for the following day.
Additional resources:
- https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/math/cresource/q2/p04/
- https://pdo.ascd.org/lmscourses/pd13oc005/media/formativeassessmentandccswithelaliteracymod_3-reading3.pdf
- https://keystoliteracy.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/frey_douglas_and_nancy_frey-_gradual_release_of_responsibility_intructional_framework.pdf
Key Takeaways
Gradual Release
This model focuses on the [I do-We do- You do] model and similar aspects of the Direct Instruction Method but can incorporate a collaborative phase prior to the release to independent work:
- Modeling (I Do It)
- Guided Practice (We Do It Together)
- Collaborative Practice (You Do It Together)
- Independent Practice (You Do It Individually)
Additional steps in the Direct Instruction Teaching Method Include:
4. Monitoring- how will you formatively assess learning and collect data on student learning?
5. Feedback– how will you respond to student learning: move learning forward, address misconceptions, and areas of difficulty?
Watch this video that models gradual release in the context of a writing lesson. (8:06 minutes).
Source: [CitizensAcademyCleve]. (2011, Dec. 5). Gradual Release (Modeled-Guided-Independent Practice). [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/uE_KTMRwbJs
Recommended Reading
Calvin, S. (n.d.) Planning and Teaching with Explicit Instruction, LD@school. Retrieved from https://www.ldatschool.ca/planning-teaching-explicit-instruction/
Direct/Explicit Instruction and Mathematics, (n.d The Access Center, Improving Outcomes for All Students K-8. Retrieved from http://165.139.150.129/intervention/math/DirecIinstruction.pdf
Basic Philosophy of Direct Instruction-, The National Institute of Direct Instruction, Retrieved from https://www.nifdi.org/15/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52&Itemid=27
Traver, Sara, Dr. (1999). A Focus on Direct Instruction. Current Practice Alerts, TeachingLD.org, Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/cmi-teaching-ld/alerts/17/uploaded_files/original_Alert2.pdf?1301001903
Source:
- Direct Instruction (12.20.13). The Glossary of Education Reform. Retrieved from https://www.edglossary.org/direct-instruction/
- Graphics in this eBook are from Pixabay.com unless otherwise noted.
- Math Icon – Image by Dean Norris from Pixabay
- Class-Image by emmaws4s from Pixabay
Problem-Based Learning
EVAN GLAZER (UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA)
Problem-Based Learning is a teaching methodology.
Note: the terms Problem-based Instruction and Inquiry and Problem-based Learning are equivalent terms.
Description
- Problem-based inquiry is an effort to challenge students to address real-world problems and resolve realistic dilemmas.
Such problems create opportunities for meaningful activities that engage students in problem-solving and higher-ordered thinking in authentic settings. Many textbooks attempt to promote these skills through contrived settings without relevance to students’ lives or interests. A notorious algebra problem concerns the time at which two railway trains will pass each other:
Two trains leave different stations headed toward each other. Station A is 500 miles west of Station B. Train A leaves Station A at 12:00 pm, traveling toward Station B at a rate of 60 miles per hour. Train B leaves Station B at 2:30 pm for Station A at a rate of 45 miles per hour. At what time will the trains meet?
Reading this question, one might respond, “Who cares?”, or, “Why do we need to know this?” Such questions have created substantial anxiety among students and have, perhaps, even been the cause of nightmares. Critics would argue that classic “story problems” leave a lasting impression of meaningless efforts to confuse and torment students as if they have come from hell’s library. Problem-based inquiry, on the other hand, intends to engage students in relevant, realistic problems.
Several changes would need to be made in the above problem to promote problem-based inquiry. It would first have to be acknowledged that the trains are not, in fact, traveling at constant rates when they are in motion; negotiating curves or changing tracks at high speeds can result in accidents.
Further, all of the information about the problem cannot be presented to the learner at the outset; that is, some ambiguity must exist in the context so that students have an opportunity to engage in a problem-solving activity. In addition, the situation should involve a meaningful scenario. Suppose that a person intends to catch a connecting train at the second station and requires a time-efficient itinerary. What if we are not given data about the trains but instead the outcome of a particular event, such as an accident?
Why should we use problem-based inquiry to help students learn?
The American educational system has been criticized for having an underachieving curriculum that leads students to memorize and regurgitate facts that do not apply to their lives (Martin, 1987; Paul, 1993). Many claim that the traditional classroom environment, with its orderly conduct and didactic teaching methods in which the teacher dispenses information, has greatly inhibited students’ opportunities to think critically (Dossey et al., 1988; Goodlad, 1984; Wood, 1987). Problem-based inquiry is an attempt to overcome these obstacles and confront the concerns presented by the National Assessment of Educational Progress:
If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war. We have, in effect, been committing an act of unthinking, unilateral educational disarmament. (A Nation at Risk, 1983)
Problem-based inquiry emphasizes learning as a process that involves problem-solving and critical thinking in situated contexts. It provides opportunities to address broader learning goals that focus on preparing students for active and responsible citizenship. Students gain experience in tackling realistic problems, and emphasis is placed on using communication, cooperation, and resources to formulate ideas and develop reasoning skills.
What is a framework for a problem-based inquiry?
Situated cognition, constructivism, social learning, and communities of practice are assumed theories of learning and cognition in problem-based inquiry environments. These theories have common themes about the context and the process of learning and are often associated.
Characteristics
Some common characteristics of problem-based learning models:
Activity is grounded in a general question about a problem with multiple possible answers and methods for addressing the question.
Each problem has a general question that guides the overall task, followed by ill-structured problems or questions that are generated throughout the problem-solving process. That is, to address the larger question, students must derive and investigate smaller problems or questions that relate to the findings and implications of the broader goal. The problems or questions thus created are most likely new to the students and lack known definitive methods or answers that have been predetermined by the teacher.
Learning is student-centered; the teacher acts as the facilitator.
In essence, the teacher creates an environment where students take ownership of the direction and content of their learning.
Students work collaboratively towards addressing the general question
. All of the students work together to attain the shared goal of producing a solution to the problem. Consequently, the groups co-depend on each other’s performance and contributions to make their advances in reasoning toward answering the research questions and the overall problem.
Learning is driven by the context of the problem and is not bound by an established curriculum.
In this environment, students determine what and how much they need to learn to accomplish a specific task. Consequently, acquired information and learned concepts and strategies are tied directly to the context of the learning situation. Learning is not confined to a preset curriculum. The creation of a final product is not a necessary requirement of all problem-based inquiry models.
Project-based learning models most often include this type of product as an integral part of the learning process because learning is expected to occur primarily in the act of creating something. Unlike problem-based inquiry models, project-based learning does not necessarily address a real-world problem, nor does it focus on providing argumentation for resolution of an issue.
In a problem-based inquiry setting, there is greater emphasis on problem-solving, analysis, resolution, and explanation of an authentic dilemma. Sometimes, this analysis and explanation is represented in the form of a project, but it can also take the form of verbal debate and written summary.
Instructional models and applications
- There is no single method for designing problem-based inquiry learning environments.
Various techniques have been used to generate the problem and stimulate learning. Promoting student ownership, using a particular medium to focus attention, telling stories, simulating and recreating events, and utilizing resources and data on the Internet are among them. The instructional model, problem-based learning, will be discussed next with attention to instructional strategies and practical examples.
Problem-Based Learning
- Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional strategy in which students actively resolve complex problems in realistic situations.
It can be used to teach individual lessons, units, or even entire curricula. PBL is often approached in a team environment with an emphasis on building skills related to consensual decision-making, dialogue and discussion, team maintenance, conflict management, and team leadership. While the fundamental approach of problem-solving in situated environments has been used throughout the history of schooling, the term PBL did not appear until the 1970s and was devised as an alternative approach to medical education.
In most medical programs, students initially take a series of fact intensive courses in biology and anatomy and then participate in a field experience as a medical resident in a hospital or clinic. However, Barrows reported that, unfortunately, medical residents frequently had difficulty applying knowledge from their classroom experiences in work-related, problem-solving situations. He argued that the classical framework of learning medical knowledge first in classrooms through studying and testing was too passive and removed from context to take on meaning.
Consequently, PBL was first seen as a medical field immersion experience whereby students learned about their medical specialty through direct engagement in realistic problems and gradual apprenticeship in natural or simulated settings. Problem-solving is emphasized as an initial area of learning and development in PBL medical programs more so than memorizing a series of facts outside their natural context.
In addition to the field of medicine, PBL is used in many areas of education and training. In academic courses, PBL is used as a tool to help students understand the utility of a particular concept or study. For example, students may learn about recycling and materials as they determine methods that will reduce the county landfill problem.
In addition, alternative education programs have been created with a PBL emphasis to help at-risk students learn in a different way through partnerships with local businesses and government. In vocational education, PBL experiences often emphasize participation in natural settings.
For example, students in architecture address the problem of designing homes for impoverished areas. Many of the residents need safe housing and cannot afford to purchase typical homes. Consequently, students learn about architectural design and resolve the problem by constructing homes made from recycled materials. In business and the military, simulations are used as a means of instruction in PBL. The affective and physiological stress associated with warfare can influence strategic planning, so PBL in military settings promotes using “war games” as a tactic for facing authentic crises.
In business settings, simulations of “what if” scenarios are used to train managers in various strategies and problem-solving approaches to conflict resolution. In both military and business settings, the simulation is a tool that provides an opportunity to not only address realistic problems but to learn from mistakes in a more forgiving way than in an authentic context.
Designing the learning environment
The following elements are commonly associated with PBL activities.
Problem generation: The problems must address concepts and principles relevant to the content domain. Problems are not investigated by students solely for problem-solving experiences but as a means of understanding the subject area. Some PBL activities incorporate multidisciplinary approaches, assuming the teacher can provide and coordinate needed resources such as additional content, instructional support, and other teachers. In addition, the problems must relate to real issues that are present in society or students’ lives. Contrived scenarios detract from the perceived usefulness of a concept.
Problem presentation: Students must “own” the problem, either by creating or selecting it. Ownership also implies that their contributions affect the outcome of solving the problem. Thus, more than one solution and more than one method of achieving a solution to the problem are often possible. Furthermore, ownership means that students take responsibility for representing and communicating their work in a unique way.
Predetermined formats of problem structure and analysis towards resolution are not recommended; however, the problem should be presented such that the information in the problem does not call attention to critical factors in the case that will lead to immediate resolution. Ownership also suggests that students will ask questions, reveal information, and synthesize critical factors throughout the problem-solving process.
Teacher role: Teachers act primarily as cognitive coaches by facilitating learning and modeling higher-order thinking and meta-cognitive skills. As facilitators, teachers give students control over how they learn and provide support and structure in the direction of their learning. They help the class create a common framework of expectations using tools such as general guidelines and timelines.
As cognitive modelers, teachers think aloud about strategies and questions that influence how students manage the progress of their learning and accomplish group tasks. In addition, teachers continually question students about the concepts they are learning in the context of the problem in order to probe their understanding, challenge their thinking, and help them deepen or extend their ideas.
Student role: Students first define or select an ill-structured problem with no obvious solution. They develop alternative hypotheses to resolve the problem and discuss and negotiate their conjectures in a group. Next, they access, evaluate, and utilize data from various available sources to support or refute their hypotheses. They may alter, develop, or synthesize hypotheses in light of new information. Finally, they develop clearly stated solutions that fit the problem and its inherent conditions based on information and reasoning to support their arguments. Solutions can be in the form of essays, presentations, or projects.
Maine School Engages Kids With Problem-Solving Challenges (11:37)
Source: https://youtu.be/i17F-b5GG94 [PBS NewsHour]. (2013, May 6). Maine School Engages Kids with Problem-Solving Challenges. [Video File]. Retrieve from https://youtu.be/i17F-b5GG94
Special correspondent John Tulenko of Leaning Matters reports on a public middle school in Portland, Maine, that is taking a different approach to teaching students. Teachers have swapped traditional curriculum for an unusually comprehensive science curriculum that emphasizes problem-solving, with a little help from some robots.
Effectiveness of Problem and Inquiry-based Learning
Why does inquiry-based learning only have an effect size of 0.31 when it is an approach to learning that seems to engage students and teachers so readily in the process of learning?
When is the right and wrong time to introduce inquiry and problem-based learning?
Watch this video from John Hattie on inquiry and problem-based learning (2:11 minutes).
[Corwin]. (2015, Nov. 9). John Hattie on inquiry-based learning. [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/YUooOYbgSUg.
References:
- Glazer, E. (2010) Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching, and Technology, Global Text, Michael Orey. (Chapter 14) Attribution CC 3.0. Retrieved from
https://textbookequity.org/Textbooks/Orey_Emerging_Perspectives_Learning.pdf
Attribution:
- Instructional Methods, Strategies and Technologies to Meet the Needs of All Learners. Copyright © 2017 by Evan Glazer (University of Georgia) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Document-Based Questions (DBQ)
Document-Based Questions (DBQs) first appeared on the Advanced Placement test in about 1973. They are essay or short answer questions that students must answer using primary and secondary sources provided in a reading packet.
Outside of the AP exams, DBQs have been used in middle and high school English language arts and social studies classrooms. They are designed to help students learn to critically analyze documents, synthesize the information contained in the documents, and then use what they have learned to answer questions.
The DBQ Project (2024) uses a 6-step method for using DBQs and what they term “Mini-Qs”. Mini-Qs are smaller DBQs that do not require as much reading, and who’s questions require shorter answers than the traditional DBQs. Mini-Qs are often used in middle school classrooms to help introduce students to the idea of DBQs.
According to the DBQ Project, a teacher needs to make sure that the DBQ they are designing or going to use has these 6-steps:
- A hook exercise that engages the students and orient them to what will be covered in the documents.
- A background essay that orients students to the question by providing essential context to help them understand the accompanying documents.
- A planning stage that allows students to preview the question(s), ask clarifying questions, and access prior knowledge about the topic.
- An analysis stage that allows students to begin reading and analyzing the provided documents to find text-based evidence to support their claims. Students should also begin thinking about any outside information they want to include in their responses.
- A categorizing stage that allows students to organize their evidence into an outline based on the DBQ question and their proposed answer to the question.
- The writing stage is where students use their outline and evidence to develop their essay responses.
Source:
- https://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-DBQ-Essay
- https://letscultivategreatness.com/how-to-effectively-build-a-dbq-classroom/
PRoject-based learning through developing the five attitudes of creative people
Project Based Learning is a teaching methodology.
Developing deep learning competencies can be achieved in many ways, but one of the most exciting is through project-based learning.
- Project-based learning is a learner-centered pedagogy that involves learners identifying a real-world problem and engaging in hands-on learning to identify a solution.
Dr Melissa Cain from the School of Education at The University of Queensland notes in this next video how a deeper engagement with content can be developed through engaging in project-based learning.
Project-based learning using Piirto’s five core attitudes (4:52 minutes)
Video: UQx DEEPx Project-based learning using Piirto’s five core attitudes. https://www.youtube.com/embed/YyoZx3WPb9o?si=ZGamLO55LVtqZpmY
Video Script
MELISSA CAIN: Do you have the right attitude for deep learning? Jane Piirto, in her work ‘Creativity for 21st Century Skills’, identified five core attitudes that creative people possess. These are:
- self-determination
- openness to experience
- risk-taking
- a tolerance for ambiguity
- group trust
We see these attitudes displayed in episodes of deep learning. One of the ways to develop these attitudes and deep learning competencies further is through project-based learning.
In a nutshell, project-based learning (or PBL for short) is a learner-centered pedagogy that applies to all ages. It involves students identifying a real-world problem with authentic connections and engaging in a hands-on project to identify a solution.
Project-based learning places emphasis on the process of inquiry regarding the final product. Through connecting with students’ interests, prior experiences, and family funds of knowledge, well-constructed projects excite and motivate students to work collaboratively on learning about a topic in depth over an extended period of time.
This includes students sharing their findings with others in insightful ways and using a range of communication strategies to suit various learner preferences and abilities.
Through project-based learning, students connect with experts in the real world to initiate a sustained inquiry.
In project-based learning, student choice and student voice are critical elements in igniting intrinsic motivation, developing a sense of agency, and placing the learners as captains of their ship.
Project-based learning has a focus on deep learning skills such as:
- critical thinking
- collaboration
- communication
- innovation
- creativity
Project-based learning also fosters teamwork and positive social relations and develops higher-order cognitive skills so that learners engage in analyzing, synthesizing, justifying, evaluating, and creating. (Bloom’s Taxonomy)
To undertake such a project successfully, students will also need to demonstrate Piirto’s core attitudes of self-discipline, openness to experience, risk-taking, tolerance for ambiguity, and group trust.
- To summarize, project-based learning involves an in-depth investigation of real-world topics, manipulation of authentic objects, and active learning through projects that occur over weeks or months and is achieved through questioning experts, making observations, making connections, and demonstrating learning to others.
Project-based learning incorporates the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles. These provide a framework that helps teachers plan learning activities to meet the diverse needs of all students.
These principles include multiple means of representation to allow for connections to be made by all students through varied means of presenting information, multiple means of action and expression so that students can choose topics, ideas, and information, as well as how to organize them, display them, and how they will present them for their chosen audience, and multiple means of engagement Students work with their interests and on authentic problems.
Personal relevance and subjectivity are important. Students are engaged and motivated by their team and the technology they use. In the future, you might like to consider developing learning activities that involve extended projects and that develop attitudes essential for moving students from surface to deep learning.
The Creative Arts Charter School video is useful for demonstrating a number of key concepts in motivating students for deep learning. Take the time to revisit this video and look for the following main concepts of project-based learning:
- Learners working with a real-world issue that is presented in an authentic manner.
- Exploration of the topic begins with a ‘big question’ and extends over weeks or months.
- Learners connect with experts or ‘knowledgeable others’.
- There is an emphasis on the process of inquiry over the final product.
- There are opportunities for collaborative learning, teamwork, and the development of positive social relationships.
- Learners present their findings to others in insightful ways.
Link to video: Creative Arts Charter School’s Approach to Project-Based Learning(5.59 minutes)
https://www.youtube.com/embed/1nq4gFp_vAY?si=m_VlqDBuD4qgleDp [Tom Scott]. (2013, Jan. 16). Creative Arts Charter School Approach to Project-Based Teaching. [Video File]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/1nq4gFp_vAY
The following are a few representative examples of the kinds of arguments typically made by advocates of project-based learning:
- Project-based learning gives students a more “integrated” understanding of the concepts and knowledge they learn while also equipping them with practical skills they can apply throughout their lives. The interdisciplinary nature of project-based learning helps students make connections across different subjects rather than perceiving, for example, math and science as discrete subjects with little in common.
- Because project-based learning mirrors the real-world situations students will encounter after they leave school, it can provide stronger and more relevant preparation for college and work. The student not only acquires important knowledge and skills, they also learn how to research complex issues, solve problems, develop plans, manage time, organize their work, collaborate with others, and persevere and overcome challenges, for example.
- Project-based learning reflects the ways in which today’s students learn. It can improve student engagement in school, increase their interest in what is being taught, strengthen their motivation to learn, and make learning experiences more relevant and meaningful.
- Since project-based learning represents a more flexible approach to instruction, it allows teachers to tailor assignments and projects for students with a diverse variety of interests, career aspirations, learning styles, abilities, and personal backgrounds. For related discussions, see differentiation and personalized learning.
- Project-based learning allows teachers and students to address multiple learning standards simultaneously. Rather than only meeting math standards in math classes and science standards in science classes, students can work progressively toward demonstrating proficiency in a variety of standards while working on a single project or series of projects. For a related discussion, see proficiency-based learning.
The following are a few representative examples of the kinds of arguments that may be made by critics of project-based learning:
- Project-based learning may not ensure that students learn all the required material and standards they are expected to learn in a course, subject area, or grade level. When a variety of subjects are lumped together, it’s more difficult for teachers to monitor and assess what students have learned in specific academic subjects.
- Many teachers will not have the time or specialized training required to use project-based learning effectively. The approach places greater demands on teachers—from course preparation to instructional methods to evaluating learning progress—and schools may not have the funding, resources, and capacity they need to adopt a project-based learning model.
- The projects that students select and design may vary widely in academic rigor and quality. Project-based learning could open the door to watered-down learning expectations and low-quality coursework.
- Project-based learning is not well suited to students who lack self-motivation or who struggle in less-structured learning environments.
- Project-based learning raises a variety of logistical concerns since students are more likely to learn outside of school or in unsupervised settings or to work with adults who are not trained educators.
Reflection
How and why could the Problem-Based and/or Project-Based Learning teaching methods enhance opportunities for deep learning, motivation, equity, and inclusion of students with disabilities?
- Reflections from Robin Vogt, Granite State College School of Education teacher candidate
Finding inclusive educational balance with students who have disabilities is not an easy task. Many factors affect not only the student’s willingness to participate but also their ability to consistently contribute to the overarching educational goal(s) that is set by the teacher. Cooperative learning opportunities encompass everything that is good and right about education and the success of an entire body of students. Most importantly, the special education population that makes up a percentage of this student body plays a large role in these successes as well. Deeper learning, motivation, equity, and inclusion are all aspects of PBL (Project-Based Learning) and the ultimate goal that surrounds its pedagogy.
As with any instructional practice, students should have clear expectations, and feel a connection to the content of real world applications. In that process, students (both populations) should be able to problem-solve, feel motivated by the task, and work with each other as learners (not individuals) to achieve success. Project-based learning is built on “identifying real-world problems” and finding solutions (UQx, 2017). When performing the necessary tasks involved, all students have an equal opportunity at both completing the learning or finding themselves coming to a conclusion on where things may have gone wrong. These experiences are not true to just one kind of learner; they cross many levels of understanding and learning styles. Using Project-Based Learning inclusively allows students with diverse learning needs to interact with his or her peers on a leveled-playing field, all with the same purpose and drive at heart. Hearing the voices of peers that they (learners with diverse needs) understand and possibly look up to is momentous and a deciding factor in the learning process. Classmates motivate and push each other to new limits when given the tools to do so. There is no single teacher who can do this; however, the experience of PBL (Project-Based Learning) and the unique opportunity to be with classmates as a unified unit can create those deep learning experiences.
Outlined by Bloom’s Taxonomy, “higher-order cognitive skills” can embrace the learning experiences created by PBL and cooperative teaching methodology. When exposed to the learning methods and practices of his or her own peers, the student’s motivation to participate and be part of the strategy is increased dramatically. There are times, especially when discussing students with diverse learning needs, when the learner is spending quite a few hours in another setting on discrete trials or receiving IEP services. Their participation in the general-education classroom is often limited and held to a small period of time during the week. Socially, the inclusiveness of Project-Based, Problem-Based, and cooperative-teaching learning is needed. Academically, the inclusiveness is influential. Personally, the experience created by all three pedagogues cannot be compared to any other facet of education. Encouraging and allowing learners with diverse learning needs to participate in these learning formats can mean the difference between a really good day filled with exploration and just another day of the same language and learning in the classroom. Project-based learning should not be used every day; however, when used at the right time and within the right environment, the PBL undertaking can drive learning for many students with different learning needs.
Source: UQx: LEARNx Deep Learning through Transformative Pedagogy. (2017). University of Queensland, Australia. (an Open edX MOOC). Project Based Learning
Attribution:
- Project-Based Learning. (2013). The Glossary of Education Reform. Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/project-based-learning/ UQx: LEARNx Deep Learning through Transformative Pedagogy (2017). University of Queensland, Australia
- Instructional Methods, Strategies and Technologies to Meet the Needs of All Learners Copyright © 2017 by UQx LEARNx team of contributors is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.